FAQ’s SECTION

This first FAQ section focuses on:

  1. Third-Party Certification/Eco-Labeling Systems
  2. Farming Practices associated with the Apparel Industry

Third-Party Certification

What is Third-Party Certification and Third-Party Certification Methodology?

Third-Party Certification is a form of certification in which the producer's claim of conformity is validated, as part of a third-party certification program, by a technically and otherwise competent body other than one controlled by the producer or buyer.

Third-party certification programs differ greatly from one another, and the degree of confidence in the resultant certification depends on the type of program and its comprehensiveness (the number and types of test/inspection methods used within the program to assess conformity).

The methods used in third-party certification programs can be classified as follows:

  • Type-testing/Initial Inspection - This method works to determine if the manufacturer's design specifications can produce a product that conforms to a particular standard. Products from a preproduction run are inspected and/or tested, but this method provides no information on whether products from an actual production run also consistently meet the specification.
  • Surveillance of the Manufacturing Process - Assessment of a manufacturer's materials, production and control processes can, at relatively low cost, provide assurance that the manufacturer's quality control procedures are adequate.
  • Audit-Testing - In this procedure, test samples are selected at random from the marketplace. Extensive testing is usually required to provide adequate assurance that products meet the referenced standard.
  • Field Investigations - Alleged failures of products during actual use are investigated to determine the cause of failure and to suggest appropriate corrective action.
  • Batch-testing - A sample of products is selected from a production batch and tested for conformance to the standard. If the sampling procedure and the sample size are adequate, batch-testing may be used to predict, with a specified degree of confidence, that all products in that batch conform to the standard. It does not, however, ensure that an untested product in the batch will meet the standard nor does it furnish information on the quality of products produced in earlier or subsequent batches. Batch testing is used in many certification programs for building products.
  • 100 Percent Testing - In this method, each individual product is tested to determine if it meets the designated standard. If the testing procedures are adequate, the procedure provides the highest possible level of assurance that the product conforms to a particular standard. It is also usually the most expensive method and can be applied only where the test has no adverse effect on the product.

Many certification programs rely on two or more of these methods for their approval process. The choice of methods depends on the needs of both the buyer and the seller and on the nature of the product. The chosen methods can greatly affect both the cost of the program and the level of confidence that can be ascribed to it.

What is an Eco-Label or Certification Mark?

A certification mark is defined as "a sign or symbol owned or controlled by the certification body that is used exclusively by the third-party certification program to identify products or services as being certified and is registered as a certification mark [when used in the United States] with the U.S. Patent Office under the Trade Marks Act of 1946."

A certificate of conformity, on the other hand is "A tag, label, nameplate, or document of specified form and contents, affixed or otherwise directly associated with a product or service on delivery to the buyer, attesting that the product or service is in conformity with the referenced standards or specifications."

Certification marks and certificates of conformity should be used to indicate that all essential characteristics of the product have been assessed. In cases where only one or several aspects of the product have been evaluated, such as flammability or electrical safety, this information should be conveyed in some manner to the buyer lest the mark mislead the buyer into placing more reliance on the certification than is justified. To the extent possible, the symbols used in connection with the certification mark should be capable of being interpreted without further definition. The marks or accompanying information should also indicate the identity of the certification body and any relationship that the body may have to the manufacturer.

In addition, the certificate of conformity should contain information on: (1) the lot, batch or other production information to allow traceability to the production source and time of production; (2) the date when the certificate was issued; and (3) the officer of the company responsible for its issuance.

Labeling included with the product should identify the producer, and contain information on the product's name, type or model number and all instructions necessary for the correct and safe use and maintenance of the product. Source: http://www.ts.nist.gov/ncsci

What is Life Cycle Assessment?

Life Cycle Assessment is a systematic set of procedures for compiling and examining the inputs and outputs of materials and energy and the associated environmental impacts directly attributable to the functioning of a product or service system throughout its life cycle.

Life Cycle: Consecutive and interlinked stages of a product or service system, from the extraction of natural resources to the final disposal. - ISO 14040.2 Draft: Life Cycle Assessment - Principles and Guidelines

Farming Practices associated with the Apparel Industry

What is Conventional Farming and what are some problems associated with Conventional Farming?

Conventional farming systems share many characteristics: rapid technological innovation; large capital investments in order to apply production and management technology; large-scale farms; single crops/row crops grown continuously over many seasons; uniform high-yield hybrid crops; extensive use of pesticides, fertilizers, and external energy inputs; high labor efficiency; and dependency on agribusiness. In the case of livestock, most production comes from confined, concentrated systems.

Philosophical underpinnings of industrial agriculture include assumptions that "a) nature is a competitor to be overcome; b) progress requires unending evolution of larger farms and depopulation of farm communities; c) progress is measured primarily by increased material consumption; d) efficiency is measured by looking at the bottom line; and e) science is an unbiased enterprise driven by natural forces to produce social good." [Karl N. Stauber et al., "The Promise of Sustainable Agriculture," in Planting the Future: Developing an Agriculture that Sustains Land and Community, Elizabeth Ann R. Bird, Gordon L. Bultena, and John C. Gardner, editors (Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1995) p.13 NAL Call #: S441 P58 1995]

Negative effects of current conventional farming practices include the following:

  • Decline in soil productivity can be due to wind and water erosion of exposed topsoil; soil compaction; loss of soil organic matter, water holding capacity, and biological activity; and salinization of soils and irrigation water in irrigated farming areas. Desertification due to overgrazing is a growing problem, especially in parts of Africa.
  • Agriculture is the largest single non-point source of water pollutants including sediments, salts, fertilizers (nitrates and phosphorus), pesticides, and manures. Pesticides from every chemical class have been detected in groundwater and are commonly found in groundwater beneath agricultural areas; they are widespread in the nation's surface waters. Eutrophication and "dead zones" due to nutrient runoff affect many rivers, lakes, and oceans. Reduced water quality impacts agricultural production, drinking water supplies, and fishery production.
  • Water scarcity in many places is due to overuse of surface and ground water for irrigation with little concern for the natural cycle that maintains stable water availability.
  • Other environmental ills include over 400 insects and mite pests and more than 70 fungal pathogens that have become resistant to one or more pesticides; stresses on pollinator and other beneficial species through pesticide use; loss of wetlands and wildlife habitat; and reduced genetic diversity due to reliance on genetic uniformity in most crops and livestock breeds.
  • Agriculture's link to global climate change is just beginning to be appreciated. Destruction of tropical forests and other native vegetation for agricultural production has a role in elevated levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Recent studies have found that soils may be sources or sinks for greenhouse gases. http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/AFSIC_pubs/srb9902.htm#toc3

Economic and Social Concerns

Economic and social problems associated with agriculture can not be separated from external economic and social pressures. As barriers to a sustainable and equitable food supply system, however, the problems may be described in the following way:

  • Economically, the U.S. agricultural sector includes a history of increasingly large federal expenditures and corresponding government involvement in planting and investment decisions; widening disparity among farmer incomes; and escalating concentration of agribusiness--industries involved with manufacture, processing, and distribution of farm products--into fewer and fewer hands. Market competition is limited. Farmers have little control over farm prices, and they continue to receive a smaller and smaller portion of consumer dollars spent on agricultural products.
  • Economic pressures have led to a tremendous loss of farms, particularly small farms, and farmers during the past few decades--more than 155,000 farms were lost from 1987 to 1997. This contributes to the disintegration of rural communities and localized marketing systems. Economically, it is very difficult for potential farmers to enter the business today. Productive farmland also has been pressured by urban and suburban sprawl--since 1970, over 30 million acres have been lost to development.

Impacts on Human Health

Potential health hazards are tied to sub-therapeutic use of antibiotics in animal production, and pesticide and nitrate contamination of water and food. Farm workers are poisoned in fields, toxic residues are found on foods, and certain human and animal diseases have developed resistance to currently used antibiotics.

What are GMO’s and the issues associated with GMO’s?

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using techniques in genetics generally known as recombinant DNA technology (Appendix N). Recombinant DNA technology is the ability to combine DNA molecules from different sources into one molecule in a test tube. GMOs are divided in three groups: genetically modified microorganisms (GMM), genetically modified plants (GMP) and genetically modified animals (GMA). According to the damage they could cause to humans and environment, there are different subgroups. For example, GMP are represented by class 1 – GMP that have limited possibilities of genetic transfer to local crops or that are not a viable strain. Class 2 includes GMPs that easily transfer genetic material, are potential pests, are viable strain or whose genetic transfer can result in negative consequences.

Key Concerns of GMO’S

  • Flow of enhanced genetic material through cross pollination to other related crops and wild plants.
  • Genetically engineered plants which are designed to kill pests may kill beneficial insects which would result in loss of biodiversity and the benefits these insects bring to the crop.
  • Questionable validity of industry data concerning reduced pesticide and/or herbicide use with GM crops as promised.
  • Genetic engineering to develop insect resistant crops may encourage the faster development of resistance to pest control products in insect populations, thereby leading to the use of more or stronger pesticides.
  • Seed security as seeds are patented so that a farmer can not collect seeds from a gm crop to sow the following season. New seeds need to be purchased.Potential Human Health Impacts

Allergens - Because protein sequences are changed with the addition of new genetic material, there is concern that the engineered or modified organism could produce known or unknown allergens. "Risks and Benefits: GM Crops in the Cross Hairs" for more information. A National Research Council committee report on GMOs recommended the development of improved methods for identifying potential allergens, "specifically focusing on new tests relevant to the human immune system and on more reliable animal models."

Antibiotic resistance - Plant genetic engineers have frequently attached genes they are trying to insert to antibiotic resistance genes. This allows them to readily select the plants that acquire the new genes by treating them with the antibiotic. Sometimes these genes remain in the transgenic crop which has lead critics to charge that the antibiotic-resistance genes could spread to pathogens in the body and render antibiotics less effective. See "Risks and Benefits: GM Crops in the Cross Hairs" for more information.

Naturally occurring toxins - There is concern that genetic engineering could inadvertently increase naturally occurring plant toxins.

Who regulates genetically engineered products?

There are no federal laws to specifically regulate genetically-engineered crops. Since 1986, responsibility for GE foods and crops has been divided among three federal agencies, based upon preexisting statutes:

  • The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has authority over GE crops that produce pesticides, based on the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of 1972 and he Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1938. Sources: Organic Exchange: http://www.organicexchange.org/faq2.php#gene

What are Organic Farming Practices?

As defined by a USDA Study Team on Organic Farming, "Organic farming is a production system which avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation, mineral-bearing rocks, and aspects of biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients, and to control insects, weeds and other pests." [Report and Recommendations on Organic Farming (Washington DC: USDA, 1980), p. xii. NAL Call # aS605.5 U52] "The principal guidelines for organic production are to use materials and practices that enhance the ecological balance of natural systems and that integrate the parts of the farming system into an ecological whole. Organic agriculture practices cannot ensure that products are completely free of residues; however, methods are used to minimize pollution from air, soil and water. Organic food handlers, processors and retailers adhere to standards that maintain the integrity of organic agricultural products. The primary goal of organic agriculture is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people." [NOSB Recommendations (USDA, Agricultural Marketing Service, National Organic Program (NOP)). Available at NOP Website (7/99): http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/nosbinfo.htm]

What are Sustainable Farming Practices?

Sustainable Agriculture describes farming systems that are "capable of maintaining their productivity and usefulness to society indefinitely. Such systems... must be resource-conserving, socially supportive, commercially competitive, and environmentally sound." [John Ikerd, as quoted by Richard Duesterhaus in "Sustainability's Promise," Journal of Soil and Water Conservation (Jan.-Feb. 1990) 45(1): p.4. NAL Call # 56.8 J822]

Under that law, "the term sustainable agriculture means an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-specific application that will, over the long term:

  • satisfy human food and fiber needs
  • enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural economy depends
  • make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls
  • sustain the economic viability of farm operations
  • enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.

Today, sustainable farming practices commonly include:

  • crop rotations that mitigate weeds, disease, insect and other pest problems; provide alternative sources of soil nitrogen; reduce soil erosion; and reduce risk of water contamination by agricultural chemicals
  • pest control strategies that are not harmful to natural systems, farmers, their neighbors, or consumers. This includes integrated pest management techniques that reduce the need for pesticides by practices such as scouting, use of resistant cultivars, timing of planting, and biological pest controls
  • increased mechanical/biological weed control; more soil and water conservation practices; and strategic use of animal and green manures
  • use of natural or synthetic inputs in a way that poses no significant hazard to man, animals, or the environment.

What is Integrated Pest Management?

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to pest management that relies on a combination of common-sense practices. IPM programs use current, comprehensive information on the life cycles of pests and their interaction with the environment. This information, in combination with available pest control methods, is used to manage pest damage by the most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the environment.

The IPM approach can be applied to both agricultural and non-agricultural settings, such as the home, garden, and workplace. IPM takes advantage of all appropriate pest management options including, but not limited to, the judicious use of pesticides. In contrast, organic food production applies many of the same concepts as IPM but limits the use of pesticides to those that are produced from natural sources, as opposed to synthetic chemicals.

Source: www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/ipm.htm

One such program that integrates IPM principles is the BASIC Program that is successfully helping farmers transition to sustainable cotton practices and policies.